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What is alternating current |
Multimeter Test for breaks in wire/ Test for voltage Most appliance require 80% rated voltage to function correctly Buy Analog multimeter Multimeters at Amazon Klein multimeter Electric testers at Amazon Clampmeter for testing amp flow on line Resource: How to test and replace element How to test thermocouple Element tests for 120 volts How to test wire |
 Safety when testing wires: Never touch wet or previously flooded appliance. Never stand on wet surface when working on electric. Never stand on bare soil, put down dry boards. Tape tester leads to wood sticks to keep hands away from power. Use non-contact voltage tester before touching wires. Never touch or lean into any made of metal. Remove metal objects from pockets. Do not use oxygen or fuel accelerants in same room as electrical repairs Resource: Basic house wiring |
 Non-contact voltage tester Test for power without touching connectors NEVER assume power is OFF Buy: Non-contact voltage tester Amazon Electric testers at Amazon Resource: How to test electric power is off |
 120 volt 15 amp devices
including GFCI, timers, switches, plugs, wifi controls etc can be
installed on 15 or 20
amp
breaker.120 volt GFCI, outlet, receptacle that is rated 20 amp can be installed on 20 amp breaker only, but NOT on 15 amp breaker. Buy 15 amp GFCI 20 amp GFCI  |
Buy Basic electric book Home plumbing/ electrical codes  Or learn about basic household electricity... use and search my site/ Resource Safe electric wiring Basic house wiring |
 Use outlet tester to check for correct wiring on any 120 volt straight-blade outlet. Buy: Klein testers Outlet tester Circuit breaker finder Electric usage monitor |
 Non metallic flexible cables must carry ground wire, but do not have hazard of short circuit causing injury from shock. Armored steel cable can be used as a grounded connection, and will protect wires from damage. Metal can be energized from an insulation failure. All conduit ...metal, plastic ... flexible and rigid ... must be attached to structure, and attached to enclosures, boxes. Movement, damage and deterioration are major cause of electrical failure. Buy: Non-metallic flexible conduit Power whip Armored cable Southwire armored cable cutter Pull boxes |
 Electrical tools must be insulated. Always best to disconnect power, but insulation failure, lack of proper grounding, grounded neutral, lack of GFCI, out-of-code wiring, generator operating without transfer switch, and other problems still pose a risk to anyone working on electric power ... even when breaker is off. Buy: Electrician tools kits KLEIN TOOLS Tools kits IRWIN tools KNIPEX |
Connect wire to screw terminal Use only 600 volt solid copper wire. Do not use stranded wire or extension cord. Do not use solder anywhere on residential 120-240 volt wiring. Attach electric installation to structure. Tighten screws very tight against wire.  Buy: NEC books Dewalt plumbing/ electrical codes Basic electric book National electric code guide/ illustrated Resources: How to twist wire How to select and install twist-on wire connectors |
 Weatherproof
lever switch on outdoor lightsSafely operate outdoor toggle switch Replaces outdoor cover Install over top of ordinary switch Works with single-pole, double-pole, 3PST, 3-way, 4-way switches etc Use weatherproof box for outdoor Can be used indoor or outdoor Buy: Best choice: Cantex lever switch Outdoor lever switches at Amazon Lever switches Resource Cantex-toggle-switch-covers.pdf Cantex-PVC-junction-boxes.pdf |
Buy: |
Push-on wire connectors in place of twist-on connectorsBuy:Push on wire connectors Amazon Red 3P connector for 10-14 gauge wire Lever connectors for stranded wire at Amazon |
 Use nipper instead of pliers or screwdriver for removing staples (and nails). Do not damage cable or wires inside cable. Code -Cable SHALL BE secured without damage to the outer covering. NEC sec. 336-15 Buy End cutting nippers at Amazon |
   When removing insulation from wire, do NOT score or put cuts on surface of copper wire. Doing so increases resistances on wire and creates weak point. Buy tools: Wire strippers at Amazon Linesman pliers Pro linesman plier Needle nose pliers End cutting nippers at Amazon |
 6" Pull box Junction boxes for conduit and wiring Buy: Bud industries 6x6x4 best value/ no KO Raco 6x6x4 metal pull box Wiegman 6x6x4 pull box Hoffman 6x6x4 pull box Adamax raintight enclosure Raintight 6x6x4 box Pull boxes Buy: Pull boxes Polycarbonite boxes Resource: Enclosures and boxes |
 Generator is the source of
alternating currentAll matter is made from atoms. Under typical conditions, each atom has negatively charged electron(s) in orbit around a nucleus that contains positively-charged proton(s). Passing a magnet or electromagnet over a coil (winding) of wire that is made from conductive material like copper, causes the electrons to come loose from orbit around the copper atom. This process is called electromagnet induction. The current of electrons start jumping from atom to atom, moving along the wire, creating what we call electricity. The voltage pushes the electrons (amperage) through the matrix or atomic structure of the conductor. The atomic structure of the conductor has resistance (measured in ohms) to the flow of amperage, creating heat that requires constant cooling of the generator. The stronger the magnet, the higher the potential voltage. The powerful electromagnet inside the generator rotates in a 360° circle going past 3 coils of wire located exactly 120° apart. The magnet has a south and north pole. As the south pole gets close to a coil, the electrons begin to accelerate one direction on the wire. As the south pole moves away and the north pole approaches the coil, the electrons slow down, momentarily stop, before accelerating back the other direction down the wire. Each time the electrons stop, the voltage drops to zero. The generator spins at 60 times per second (60 cycles, 60 Hz, frequency are common terms) and the direction change happens so quickly that the end user cannot see their light bulbs are actually flickering with the momentary drop to zero volts, and the average voltage is always above zero so the lights stay on.  Back and forth the electrons oscillate on each wire, producing what is called alternating current. DC or direct current, produced by solar panels or batteries, causes electrons to move one direction only, and must be changed into matching phases of alternating current before being transmitted along power company wires. |
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| How alternating current works: The magnet inside a generator arrives at each coil at different times, so the acceleration of electrons on each coil is different, or out of phase. from each other. Out of phase lines carry power potential when connected to a Load. Since there are 3 coils in the generator, 3 Hot wires emerge from the power plant. What is 3-phase A single Hot wire (Hot or Line means the wire carries power) 
is taken from one end of
each coil. The other ends of
the 3 coils are connected together to form the Neutral wire. The wires
are connected based on direction of magnet rotation. The
Neutral is always bonded to the ground (earth) to provide stability to
the grid. This type of generator configuration
is
called a WYE where the 3 coils are wired in parallel with
each other.Each Hot wire carries electrons that are accelerating different directions at any given moment, thus causing the 3 Hot wires to be out of phase from each other. At the same time, each Hot is out of phase with the Neutral wire. There are two general types of alternating current: a) Single-phase using any 2 out-of-phase wires: this includes 2 Hot wires connected to a single-phase Load -or- 1 Hot and 1 Neutral connected to a single-phase Load. b) 3-Phase using 3 out-of-phase Hot wires connected to a 3-phase Load. Load is any light bulb, motor, computer etc that consumes power. Difference between single-phase and 3 phase If two wires (or 3 wires) are out-of-phase with each other, they have a 'potential' power difference from each other. When the out-of-phase wires are connected to a Load (light bulb, heating element, motor, pump, circuit board, cell phone charger, HVAC etc), the electrons start oscillating back and forth, from wire to wire, passing through the Load. This energizes the Load with power. Taking residential single-phase for example: When the two out-of-phase wires are connected to an incandescent light bulb, the electrons (current) begins flowing back-and-forth across the filament inside the bulb. The filament heats up because the the material chosen for the filament has correct resistance to the anticipated flow of electrons being pushed by the specified voltage. The filament burns bright from the heat and emits light. If too much power is applied to the light bulb, so that the voltage does not match rating of bulb, then the filament will burn out. Same applies to all Loads. All electrical devices, from light bulbs to motors to ovens and refrigerators etc have a voltage rating that must be matched so the load works as expected. Too little voltage, during a brown-out, incorrect wire size, undersized breaker, or power outage etc, and the load will stop working. Too much voltage due to wiring error or brief power surge caused by lightning or motor start-up etc, and the Load can fail. If the two wires are NOT out-of-phase, then the electrons do not oscillate back and forth, and light bulb will not light up. So there is potential power between a Hot wire and a Neutral wire, and there is a potential power between any two out-of-phase Hot wires. There is also power potential across 3 hot wires in a commercial 3-phase application. The potential is realized, and power is released into the Load when the out-of-phase wires are connected. |
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 Fig
12-7 shows a phasor diagram of imaginary
2.5 MW(megawatt) 3-phase
generator that can produce 2.500,000 watts of power per hour. The WYE
configuration has 3 coils of wire, and a common point called the
Neutral. The purpose of the illustration is to show the relative volts and amps of a 3-phase WYE configuration. Delta configurations have 3 coils that are wired in series, unlike WYE coils wired in parallel. Delta is not used for power generators, but is used for commercial 3-phase applications where specified. The volt and amp ratios for Delta are different than WYE. Read about Delta Electricity is a combination of voltage and amperage, where volts multiplied by amps equal watts (total power). Each coil on the generator can be called a phase. Each phase has a volt and amp rating called the Phase amperage and Phase voltage. Each line also has a volt and amp rating, called the Line voltage and the Line amperage. Volts and amps are measured differently. Voltage is a potential across any 2 points. Voltage can be measured across the 2 ends of any coil, or across 2 Line wires, or across the Line and Neutral point. Amperage is measured as a flow of current (current of electrons) at any point. Amperage can be measured along a Line wire, or along the coil inside the generator etc. The amperage on each coil of the generator (called the Phase Amperage) is the same as the amperage (current) that flows along each Line (called the Line amperage or Line current). In a WYE configuration, each Line has the same potential voltage (called the Line voltage) as the other Lines. There is also voltage potential between the any of the 3 Lines and the Neutral point (called the Phase voltage). The phase voltage for a WYE configuration is exactly √3 x 17321 of the Line voltage. Square root of 3 (1.732) is a common math found with 3 phase. Voltage potential is steady and typically does not change, unless there are brief spikes during lightning or surge events. The Neutral wire is always bonded to the ground (earth) to stabilize the grid by redirecting voltage spikes into the ground.\ What varies on the grid is amperage. Amperage (current of electrons) rises and falls as power consumption (wattage consumption) varies across the grid, with more amperage flowing when usage is high. When more amps (electrons) are getting pushed across the grid during the high usage of hot summer day, then the heat goes up. Every material, including conductive materials, have natural resistance to voltage pushing electrons through the atomic structure of the material. The resistance pushes back against the flow of electrons, creating heat, just like the heat that comes from incandescent light bulb. Heat causes the electrons to move further from orbit and dissipate off the power line causing power loss and reduced grid efficiency. |
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High voltage, low amperage
transmission Transmission
and distribution lines from the power plant are high voltage, low
amperage to reduce heat loss. Heat occurs when voltage pushes amperage
(current of electrons) against
the matrix, or atomic structure, of the conductor. Using high voltage
and low amperage means more force is pushing fewer electrons against
the conductor matrix, which means less resistance from the
conductor and less heat. Ampacities of power lines By reducing heat loss, electricity can be transmitted longer distance without losing power. To prevent electricity from jumping (arcing) to other wires, or to the transmission tower, or to the earth, high voltage conductors (wires) are suspended high above the ground and spaced far apart, utilizing air as an insulator. The higher the voltage, the more space is needed to keep the voltage under control. High voltage also requires large and expensive switchgear, and is extremely dangerous, making it impractical and hazardous for residential and commercial use. To solve the problem, transformers are used throughout the grid to step up or step down voltage. Since amps and volts are inversely proportional, when volts are stepped down by the transformer at local home or business, amps are stepped up. The lower voltage can be controlled at home and business using small switches contained inside metal or plastic enclosures while amps are controlled with properly sized circuit breaker and wire. |
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| Types of AC generators Alternating current comes from 3-phase power plant generator, such as commercial windmill, hydroelectric dam, atomic plant, coal-fired power plant, or smaller gas-fired plant etc. Alternating current can also come from smaller generators, small single-phase windmill and household single-phase generators etc. The small generators do not have electromagnet, and instead they use an ordinary metal magnet. Smaller generators usually have 2 magnets, and a single coil of wire rotates between the two magnets.  3-phase and
single phaseTypical single phase on the grid originates from 3-phase by pulling 2 Hot wires off the 3 phase, or pulling 1 Hot and 1 Neutral. Residential electricity comes from a split phase transformer that receives 1 Hot and 1 Neutral off the 3-phase distribution lines. Read Commercial 3 phase comes from 3 transformers that receive 3 Hot wires and a Neutral from 3-phase distribution lines. Read 3-phase motor controlled by single phase Typical 3-phase load is controlled by a single-phase circuit. Fig-3 shows 2 Hot wires pulled off two legs of the 3-phase. The 2 Hot wires are single-phase because they use 2 wires to complete a circuit, and are out-of-phase with each other. Each Hot wire, or leg, of the 3-phase is out-of-phase with the other legs. Each wire or leg has electrons moving at a different rate from electrons on the other wires. This gives power potential that can be put to work by connecting the 3 Hot wires to 3 different windings inside a motor. One method of wiring a motor is the WYE configuration where one end of each winding is connected to a Hot wire, while the other ends of the 3 windings are connected together at a common point. Once the 3 Hot wires are energized, then each wire supplies a steady flow of oscillating electrons across the 3 windings, causing the motor to spin. Usually, 3-phase is controlled with single-phase timers, switches, PLC etc. Pulling two hot wires off separate legs of 3-phase gives a power potential between each wire because the electrons are moving differently on each wire. A switch is turned on, sending power to the contactor. The contactor has a coil of wire with an iron core in the center. The two single-phase Hot wires connect to each end of the coil, causing electrons to oscillate across the contactor coil. This magnetizes the iron core, which pulls down a metal lever that closes contact points that energize the 3-phase motor. Resources Contactors and relays 3-pole contactors How to wire motor control contactor |
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 Larger image of gridSingle phase is a derivative of 3-phase from the power plant. Illustration shows 3 phase from power plant to household single-phase Resources: See inside main breaker box Difference between single-phase and 3-phase |
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| Terminology for wiring Load = light bulb, motor, fan, heater, pump; Total load = add up wattage on all Loads. Resistive Load: incandescent light bulb, heating element have uniform voltage and amp draw; Inductive load: motor, pump etc. Inductive loads pull many amps during start up. Load rating... light bulb shows wattage, label on water heater shows volts-watts, timer labels show rating for inductive or resistive etc Figure volts amps watts Volts x amps = watts Water heater formulas .pdf Hot wire = wire or wires that carry voltage potential and would shock you if breaker was on Image residential breaker box Neutral wire = by code, a white wire used for 120V and 277V circuits to complete circuit, and carries no voltage Ground wire = green or bare copper wire that connects to ground busbar in breaker box Why ground is needed 208 and 240 volt single-phase circuits have 2 Hot wires. (US electric) Image residential breaker box Some countries have 230-240Volt circuits with 1 Hot and 1 Neutral (instead of 2 Hot wires). What is 208 volt 120 and 277 volt circuits have 1 Hot and 1 Neutral / Usually 277volt is found in commercial applications (US) What is 277 volt Standard voltages in US and Americas include 12V 24V 120V 208V 240V 277V 480V 600V etc found in various applications Voltages around the world vary depending on country. Standard voltages make it possible to mass produce wires, breakers, appliances etc. 60Hz or 60 cycle = number of times AC generator rotates each second. Americas use 60 Hz power, while other countries use 50Hz. Read more DC direct current is generated by solar panels and batteries. Large arc when switching high voltage DC is fire hazard. Device must show DC rating. Read about DC vrs AC AC alternating current produced by power plant, windmill, or portable generator. More Single-phase = residential electrical systems are single phase AC, requiring 2 wires to complete circuit More Three-phase = commercial wiring requiring 3 Hot wires to complete circuit More Wire gauge = diameter of wire. The wire size and load rating and breaker must match Select wire and breaker Breaker: circuit breaker is overcurrent protection that will trip when amp draw from Load or short circuit overheats wire. Turn breaker fully off and then fully on. Jumper = short wire used to connect 2 electrical points together. |
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